Ageing and health: World health Organization. 2022. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/ageing-and-health
The Red Book – A Guide to Work Incentives: Social Security Administration. 2019. Available from: https://www.ssa.gov/redbook/
Zeng XK, Shen SS, Guan HL, Chen LY, Chen XJ. Coexisting frailty and cognitive impairment as a predictor of adverse outcomes in older inpatients after discharge: results from a One-Year Follow-Up study. Clin Interv Aging. 2022;17:1697–706.
Google Scholar
Disability. World Health Organization. Available from: https://www.who.int/health-topics/disability#tab=tab_1
Manton KG. Epidemiological, demographic, and social correlates of disability among the elderly. Milbank Q. 1989:13–58.
Bai W, Chen P, Cai H, Zhang Q, Su Z, Cheung T, et al. Worldwide prevalence of mild cognitive impairment among community dwellers aged 50 years and older: a meta-analysis and systematic review of epidemiology studies. Age Ageing. 2022;51(8):afac173.
Petersen RC. Mild cognitive impairment: epidemiology, pathology, and clinical assessment. UpToDate [Internet]. Waltham (MA): UpToDate Inc.; 2024 [cited 2025 Oct 5]. Available from: https://www.uptodate.com/contents/mild-cognitive-impairment-epidemiology-pathology-and-clinical-assessment
Fatin Malek Rivan N, Murukesu RR, Shahar S, Fadilah Rajab N, Subramaniam P, Choon Ooi T, et al. Synergistic effects of cognitive frailty and comorbidities on disability: a community-based longitudinal study. BMC Geriatr. 2024;24(1):448.
Google Scholar
Friedman E, Shorey C. Inflammation in Multimorbidity and disability: an integrative review. Health Psychol. 2019;38(9):791–801.
Google Scholar
Solas M, Milagro FI, Ramírez MJ, Martínez JA. Inflammation and gut-brain axis link obesity to cognitive dysfunction: plausible Pharmacological interventions. Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2017;37:87–92.
Google Scholar
Nishioka S, Wakabayashi H. Interaction between malnutrition and physical disability in older adults: is there a malnutrition-disability cycle? Nutr Rev. 2023;81(2):191–205.
Google Scholar
Cui K, Meng W, Li Z, Zeng X, Li X, Ge X. Dynamics, association, and Temporal sequence of cognitive function and frailty: a longitudinal study among Chinese community-dwelling older adults. BMC Geriatr. 2023;23(1):658.
Google Scholar
Zhao X, Jin L, Sun SB. The bidirectional association between physical and cognitive function among Chinese older adults: A mediation analysis. Int J Aging Hum Dev. 2021;92(2):240–63.
Google Scholar
Krall JR, Carlson MC, Fried LP, Xue QL. Examining the dynamic, bidirectional associations between cognitive and physical functioning in older adults. Am J Epidemiol. 2014;180(8):838–46.
Google Scholar
Stijntjes M, Aartsen MJ, Taekema DG, Gussekloo J, Huisman M, Meskers CGM, et al. Temporal relationship between cognitive and physical performance in Middle-Aged to oldest old people. J Gerontol Biol Sci Med Sci. 2017;72(5):662–8.
Best JR, Liu-Ambrose T, Boudreau RM, Ayonayon HN, Satterfield S, Simonsick EM, et al. An evaluation of the Longitudinal, bidirectional associations between gait speed and cognition in older women and men. J Gerontol Biol Sci Med Sci. 2016;71(12):1616–23.
Google Scholar
Sun Q, Jiang N, Lu N, Lou VWQ. Bidirectional relationship between cognitive function and loss hierarchy of activities of daily living among older adults with disabilities in urban china: a cross-lagged analysis. BMJ Open. 2022;12(9):e057211.
Google Scholar
Cornman JC, Glei DA, Goldman N, Chang MC, Lin HS, Chuang YL, et al. Cohort profile: the social environment and biomarkers of aging study (SEBAS) in Taiwan. Int J Epidemiol. 2016;45(1):54–63.
Google Scholar
Pfeiffer E. A short portable mental status questionnaire for the assessment of organic brain deficit in elderly Patients†. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1975;23(10):433–41.
Google Scholar
Lawton MP, Brody EM. Assessment of older people: Self-Maintaining and instrumental activities of daily Living1. Gerontologist. 1969;9(3Part1):179–86.
Google Scholar
Katz S, Downs TD, Cash HR, Grotz RC. Progress in development of the index of ADL. Gerontologist. 1970;10(1):20–30.
Google Scholar
Katz S. Assessing self-maintenance: activities of daily living, mobility, and instrumental activities of daily living. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1983;31(12):721–7.
Google Scholar
Collins LM, Schafer JL, Kam CM. A comparison of inclusive and restrictive strategies in modern missing data procedures. Psychol Methods. 2001;6(4):330–51.
Google Scholar
Lt H, Bentler PM. Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Struct Equation Modeling: Multidisciplinary J. 1999;6(1):1–55.
Google Scholar
Steiger JH. Understanding the limitations of global fit assessment in structural equation modeling. Pers Indiv Differ. 2007;42(5):893–8.
Google Scholar
SAS Institute Inc. SAS 9.4 software. Cary, NC: SAS Institute Inc.; 2013.
Marks D. Models of disability. Disabil Rehabil. 1997;19(3):85–91.
Google Scholar
Linda Cocchiarella SM, Joann G, Elmore. Jane Givens. Disability assessment and determination in the United States. UpToDate [Internet]. Waltham (MA): UpToDate Inc.; 2024 [cited 2025 Oct 5]. Available from: https://www.uptodate.com/contents/disability-assessment-and-determination-in-the-united-states
Hair JF, Black WC, Babin BJ, Anderson RE. Multivariate data analysis. 7th ed. Upper Saddle River (NJ): Pearson Education; 2010.
Kline RB. Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. 4th ed. New York (NY): Guilford Press; 2015.
Field A. Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics. 4th ed. London: SAGE Publications; 2013.
Rajan KB, Hebert LE, Scherr PA, Mendes de Leon CF, Evans DA. Disability in basic and instrumental activities of daily living is associated with faster rate of decline in cognitive function of older adults. J Gerontol Biol Sci Med Sci. 2013;68(5):624–30.
Google Scholar
Wallace M, Shelkey M. Katz index of independence in activities of daily living (ADL). Urol Nurs. 2007;27(1):93–4.
Google Scholar
Huang SW, Chang KH, Escorpizo R, Chi WC, Yen CF, Liao HF, et al. Functioning and disability analysis by using WHO disability assessment schedule 2.0 in older adults Taiwanese patients with dementia. Disabil Rehabil. 2016;38(17):1652–63.
Google Scholar
Chen YM, Chen DR, Chiang TL, Tu YK, Yu HW. Determinants of rate of change in functional disability: an application of latent growth curve modeling. Arch Gerontol Geriatr. 2016;64:21–8.
Google Scholar
Mao S, Xie L, Lu N. Activity engagement and cognitive function among Chinese older adults: moderating roles of gender and age. BMC Geriatr. 2023;23(1):223.
Google Scholar
Chiu TY, Yen CF, Escorpizo R, Chi WC, Liou TH, Liao HF, et al. What is the gap in activity and participation between people with disability and the general population in taiwan? Int J Equity Health. 2017;16(1):136.
Google Scholar
Chen YM, Chiang TL, Chen DR, Tu YK, Yu HW. Trajectories of older adults’ leisure time activity and functional disability: a 12-Year Follow-Up. Int J Behav Med. 2016;23(6):697–706.
Google Scholar
Yu HW, Chen DR, Chiang TL, Tu YK, Chen YM. Disability trajectories and associated disablement process factors among older adults in Taiwan. Arch Gerontol Geriatr. 2015;60(2):272–80.
Google Scholar
Chiu CJ, Li ML, Chou CY. Trends and biopsychosocial correlates of physical disabilities among older men and women in taiwan: examination based on ADL, IADL, mobility, and frailty. BMC Geriatr. 2022;22(1):148.
Google Scholar
Sewell KR, Erickson KI, Rainey-Smith SR, Peiffer JJ, Sohrabi HR, Brown BM. Relationships between physical activity, sleep and cognitive function: A narrative review. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2021;130:369–78.
Google Scholar
Chen YM, Tu YK, Yu HW, Chiu TY, Chiang TL, Chen DR, et al. Leisure time activities as mediating variables in functional disability progression: an application of parallel latent growth curve modeling. PLoS ONE. 2018;13(10):e0203757.
Google Scholar
Chiao C. Beyond health care: volunteer work, social participation, and late-life general cognitive status in Taiwan. Soc Sci Med. 2019;229:154–60.
Google Scholar
Iezzoni LI. When walking fails: mobility problems of adults with chronic conditions. Berkeley (CA): University of California Press; 2003.
Dominguez LJ, Veronese N, Vernuccio L, Catanese G, Inzerillo F, Salemi G, et al. Nutrition, physical activity, and other lifestyle factors in the prevention of cognitive decline and dementia. Nutrients. 2021;13(11):4080.
Duan H, Zhou D, Xu N, Yang T, Wu Q, Wang Z, et al. Association of unhealthy lifestyle and genetic risk factors with mild cognitive impairment in Chinese older adults. JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6(7):e2324031.
Google Scholar
Jiang X, Guo Y, Cui L, Huang L, Guo Q, Huang G. Study of diet habits and cognitive function in the Chinese Middle-Aged and elderly population: the association between folic Acid, B vitamins, vitamin D, coenzyme Q10 supplementation and cognitive ability. Nutrients. 2023;15(5):1131.
Sakurai K, Okada E, Anzai S, Tamura R, Shiraishi I, Inamura N, et al. Protein-balanced dietary habits benefit cognitive function in Japanese older adults. Nutrients. 2023;15(3):770.
Lu Z, He R, Zhang Y, Li B, Li F, Fu Y, et al. Relationship between Whole-Blood magnesium and cognitive performance among Chinese adults. Nutrients. 2023;15(12):2706.
Ngandu T, Lehtisalo J, Solomon A, Levalahti E, Ahtiluoto S, Antikainen R, et al. A 2 year multidomain intervention of diet, exercise, cognitive training, and vascular risk monitoring versus control to prevent cognitive decline in at-risk elderly people (FINGER): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2015;385(9984):2255–63.
Google Scholar
Sport Administration MoE. Research Report on Elderly Sports Policies in Taiwan2022. Available from: https://www.sa.gov.tw/Resource/Other/f1387368801925.pdf
Organization WH. Physical activity: World Health Organization; 2022. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/physical-activity
Bull FC, Al-Ansari SS, Biddle S, Borodulin K, Buman MP, Cardon G, et al. World health organization 2020 guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour. Br J Sports Med. 2020;54(24):1451–62.
Google Scholar
Chang WN, Tzeng PL, Huang WJ, Lin YH, Lin KP, Wen CJ, et al. Objective assessment of the association between frailty and sedentary behavior in older adults: a cross-sectional study. Eur Rev Aging Phys Act. 2023;20(1):14.
Google Scholar
Harvey JA, Chastin SF, Skelton DA. How sedentary are older people? A systematic review of the amount of sedentary behavior. J Aging Phys Act. 2015;23(3):471–87.
Google Scholar
Li S, Lear SA, Rangarajan S, Hu B, Yin L, Bangdiwala SI, et al. Association of sitting time with mortality and cardiovascular events in High-Income, Middle-Income, and Low-Income countries. JAMA Cardiol. 2022;7(8):796–807.
Google Scholar
Chen S, Chen T, Honda T, Nofuji Y, Kishimoto H, Narazaki K. Associations of Objectively-Measured sedentary time and patterns with cognitive function in Non-Demented Japanese older adults: A Cross-Sectional study. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2022;19(4):1999.
Ramsey KA, Rojer AGM, D’Andrea L, Otten RHJ, Heymans MW, Trappenburg MC, et al. The association of objectively measured physical activity and sedentary behavior with skeletal muscle strength and muscle power in older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Ageing Res Rev. 2021;67:101266.
Google Scholar
Directorate-General of Budget, Accounting and, Statistics EY. Time Utilization Survey, 1994 (AA100003) [data file]. Available from Survey Research Data Archive, Academia Sinica. 2004. https://doi.org/10.6141/TW-SRDA-AA100003-1.
Lin YK, Peters K, Chen IH. Television watching, reading, cognition, depression and life satisfaction among middle-aged and older populations: A group-based trajectory modelling analysis of National data. Health Soc Care Community. 2022;30(6):e5661–72.
Google Scholar
link
More Stories
Opinion: The real toxins faced by people with disabilities
We must attack NJ health care barriers
CT LEND Fellows Train to Improve Health Care for People with Developmental Disabilities